CRYPTO-JEWS IN COLONIAL MEXICO

Jews were among the early European settlers of New Spain. They inhabited the region uninterruptedly since 1521, even though their presence was forbidden for the majority of the time. They came under false identities, having converted to Catholicism to avoid expulsion from Spain. The conversos, also called " "Crypto-Jews," "New Christians" or "Anussim" led a paradoxical existence. Their mere presence in Spain or New Spain is not easy to understand. When the Catholic kings Ferdinand and Isabella decreed all Jews in the kingdom should convert to Catholicism or leave the country, there were many people who became real Catholics. But a large number of Jews found a way to keep their beliefs, rituals and spirituality hidden in order to remain in Spain.

Many came to the New World in search of more religious freedom, hoping to keep their Spanish and Jewish identities. They could have immigrated to countries such as Italy and Turkey and practiced their religion with freedom, but they felt connected to Spain, the land, the culture, the language, and felt they had a right to live in the land they had always known. Many Crypto-Jews stayed in Spain, or came to the new world, taking the risk of being discovered and punished by the Inquisition, living a life of secrecy. According to Salvador de Madriaga, "the Jews of 1492 left behind a deeply judaized Spain; and they went abroad no less hispanified." (Seymour Liebman,. The Jews in New Spain, 20) Jews were part of Spanish society and culture, and that would not change in New Spain.

Most of the details about the lives of the Crypto-Jews in New Spain are actually provided by the Inquisition itself. Records of trials describe in detail their customs, religious and cultural practices, and how they were passed on from generation to generation. "From the minutes of the trials much can be learned of the psyches, values, characteristics, and customs of the Mexican colonial Jew." (Liebman, New Spain, 52) As time went by and the Mexican Jews became more and more detached from a real Jewish religious life, those customs changed in order to allow them to fit into colonial Mexico and survive the grasp of the Inquisition. Crypto-Jews incorporated not only Christian rituals, but also native practices they learned from the Indians who worked as their servants. Inquisition trials also helped make sure that Jewish culture was transmitted to new generation of Jews, explaining in detail how they kept Jewish holidays, prayers they recited, etc.

THE MEXICAN JEWS

Jews were not supposed to have settled in the New World. In a decree of 1522, King Charles V forbade all recent converts to go to the Indies. In 1523, an edict specifically prohibited Jews from entering New Spain. Still, the conversos crossed the ocean, bringing their traditions, culture and rituals. In order to obtain licenses for emigration, they "paid bribes, forged papers, and appropriated old Catholic names from tombstones in Spain." (Seymour Liebman, The Enlightened, p20) Those Jews believed the Spanish colonies would give them more freedom to practice Judaism, being away from Spain, but still live in a Spanish environment. The Inquisition soon followed them to the New World.

There were Jews in the group that accompanied Cortés in the Conquest of Mexico, among them Hernando Alonso, who would become the first Jewish martyr in New Spain. Alonso prospered in the New World, raising cattle, lambs and pigs. He was not a religious Jew, and was probably prosecuted by the Inquisition because of his connections with Cortés.

Crypto-Jews were part of colonial life, and many of their traditions outlived them and remained with Mexican culture. They tried to keep as much of their Judaism as possible, while practicing Catholicism in public. That meant anywhere from keeping the Sabbath and the holidays and eating a kosher diet, to merely avoiding pork and praying for the coming of the Messiah. Some believed that the knowledge and intention to follow Mosaic laws was enough to keep Judaism alive. Early in colonial life, Jews were not the main target of the Inquisition, and lived peaceful and successful lives in Mexico. The vast majority of Mexican Jews were of Sephardic descent, coming predominantly from Spain and Portugal, and had led rich cultural and economic lives in Europe. They were educated, and had "acquired a degree of nationality not found in other countries." (Liebman, New Spain, 19) During the sixteenth and part of the seventeenth centuries, the "Conversos" were well accepted by the general population. They had their place in society, holding occupations that the Spaniards would rather not assume. They were commonly merchants, shopkeepers, peddlers, importers.

Aside from religious observance, colonial Crypto-Jews were very similar to the Christian settlers. Jews and Christians had friendly relationships, and many Catholics even helped Jews hide or escape the Inquisition. Still, Crypto-Jews led a dual existence. They had to know enough about Catholicism in order to convince authorities that they were practicing, good Christians. They also had to hide their true identity from their servants and slaves. The natives were in sort of a similar position, being catechized by Catholic friars and forced to leave their religion and culture behind. Most Jewish settlers in Mexico had native servants, who were instructed by the Church to report any suspicious heretic behavior. To avoid being reported to the clergy, Jews "established a bond of religious fraternity with the natives, sealed with a drop of blood." Blood had been an important symbol in native religion. Some Conversos taught Jewish principles to the natives, which, although a great risk, could also instill some feelings of resentment against Catholic dominance. As early as 1508 there were complaints that natives were being corrupted by Jewish teachings. There are accounts of Jews who tried to ridicule Christianity to the natives, stressing that the true Messiah would not have been crucified. They also reminded the Indians of the high status of their own priests and gods. The Church certainly feared an alliance between Jews and Indians, but such joint resistance never occurred in a large scale. One of the reasons may be the distinction the Catholic authorities established between the two groups. Natives, new to the faith, were to be protected and educated. Judaizers were seen as enemies of the Church, and should not be spared by the Inquisition. Interestingly, Jews managed to silently resist the Inquisition more effectively than the natives, whose religion and culture was all but erased by the Church from Spanish Mexico:

JEWISH LIFE AND RELIGION IN MEXICO

The term Crypto-Judaism refers to a broad range of practices and beliefs held by Jews who had been forced to convert to Catholicism. The "Crypto-Jew" was a paradoxical character. Crypto-Jews acted in a way to "convince" the Catholic Church they had abandoned Judaism, but at the same time they carried a burden of guild for having rejected Judaism and accepted a new faith, even if only in exterior. They held a strong belief that the Messiah would come and free them from Catholic dominance:

That belief probably gave people strength to remain Jews. It also created a strong tradition of superstition. Mexican Jews were more superstitious than religious. Some superstitions common among the Anusim included the wearing of amulets such as broken pieces of matzah in a bag around their necks to avoid catastrophes. They also believed that single women should dry their hair well after washing, and put it up in a bun, in order to attract a good husband. Some Jews only ate all brown or black chickens, with no feathers of any other colors. These superstitions are not necessarily based on Jewish Law or beliefs, and probably incorporated some native and Christian customs.

HOLIDAY OBSERVANCE

One of the customs the Crypto-Jews kept, in order to attain redemption and expiate their guilt for conversion to Catholicism, was fasting. Although Jewish law mandates fasting only on Yom Kippur, Mexican Jews fasted several times during the year. People also had to keep their fasting from servants. One tactic was to send servants away on errands during mealtimes, when the food was thrown away. Other forged arguments when they sat to eat, then claimed they had lost their appetite. Jews sometimes fasted openly in groups, claiming that the fasting was in honor of the Virgin of Carmen. Some people in the community were known for their ability to fast. The concept of "suffering and self-denial as a means of salvation was borrowed from Catholicism." (Liebman, New Spain, 63)

Yom Kippur was the most important day of the year. Apparently Mexican Jews did not follow the lunar calendar, there was a set date for the celebration of Yom Kippur, September 10^th. Even non-religious Jews celebrated Yom Kippur in some way. Rituals included bathing and cleaning the house the day before, and eating a meal of fish and vegetables. People were encouraged to wear new clothes (contrary to what is customary in the present), and some women lit candles. Candles were very expensive in colonial Mexico, and therefore attracted attention. For this reason, women left candles on the table weeks before Yom Kippur so people would be used to them the day of the holiday. During the day, some people would walk in the streets with toothpicks in their mouths to hide the fact that they were fasting. To break the fast, Jews ate a meal of fish, eggs and vegetables. The tradition of breaking fasts with those foods was taken from the Spanish. The most important Yom Kippur tradition, of asking forgiveness from friends and relatives, was also kept. The Inquisition used that practice as a sign of Judaizing.

After Yom Kippur, the most important fasting occasion was Purim, a holiday which celebrated Queen Esther and her confession of her faith to her husband, the King, in order to save the Jews. The parallels between the two historical moments were clear to the Anussim. Purim is usually one of the happiest holidays in the Jewish Calendar, with children dressing up in costumes and making a lot of noise during services. In New Spain, it was a more solemn festivity, because there had been no Queen Esther to save them. One particular holiday that is still kept in Spain and New Mexico has its basis in the Jewish celebration of Purim. The Feast of Saint Esther, usually described as a woman's holiday, is a time when mothers traditionally have gathered to teach their daughters ways of the home and prepare an elaborate family dinner that by many accounts includes fruit-filled pastries, or empanadas, for dessert. It takes place in March, at the same time Crypto-Jews used to celebrate Purim.

The Sabbath, the holiest moment in Jewish life, was also observed in New Spain. Mexican Jews could not gather for a Sabbath meal on Friday evenings with friends and family as it is customary, but there were services on Saturdays to celebrate the end of the Sabbath. Candles were sometimes lit under a table covered with a black tablecloth, so passersby would not see the light of the candles. There were sermons, with prayers usually recited in Portuguese and Spanish. There were few prayers recited in Hebrew, probably because the teaching of Hebrew was not common in Mexico.

Passover, which celebrated the freedom of the Jews from slavery in Egypt, was also observed carefully. Mexican Jews considered their situation a sort of "spiritual slavery," and thought a literal observance of the holiday would help bring their own freedom (Liebman, New Spain, 67) One of the Passover traditions was the sacrifice of a white lamb, whose blood was to be "put on the two side posts and on the lintel of the house where the lamb was to be eaten." (Liebman, New Spain, 68) That practice was read by the Inquisition as a sure sign of Judaizing. Jews made and ate matzah or tortillas during the week of Passover. Christians were used to matzah as a remedy prescribed by Jewish doctors for stomach ailments. The word "Phase" was used in reference to Passover to deceive Christians. The holiday was celebrated on March 14^th, even though following the lunar calendar Passover never falls that early in the year.

OTHER TRADITIONS

Jewish tradition is very academic, but "conversos" could not write or preach. Jewish writings and books were forbidden by the Inquisition. The only known writings of a Jew in the colonial period are those of Luis de Carvajal, who was executed by the Inquisition in the sixteenth century. His writings show "the extent of the penetration of Jewish erudition into early Mexican culture." (Richard Greenleaf, Mexican Inquisition, 171) Carvajal created many prayers that are still recited on Yom Kippur:

In his testament, written hours before his execution, he reaffirms his faith in the Jewish God and his desire to die as a Jew:

Carvajal goes on to proclaim the principles of the Jewish faith, following the format of Maimonides: "I believe that God our Lord and universal Creator is one and no more. Hear, O Israel, the Lord thy God is one, and there is no other." (Liebman, 126)

Many Catholic prayers and observances were adapted for Jewish use. The concept of purgatory was introduced into Jewish belief, as well as the practice of praying on one’s knees. Some native customs were also incorporated into Jewish ritual. For instance, praying with a cloth wrapped around one’s hands is a custom that has no origin in Judaism or Catholicism, but a Mayan painting shows an Indian woman praying in that way.

There were no established synagogues in New Spain, and the Jewish community gathered in private rooms to worship. There was no Torah or Hebrew prayer books, which were forbidden by the Inquisition. As Jews did not live in a separate area of the city, worshipping quarters needed to be disguised. In 1589, Francisco Rodrigues de Matos was accused of being a Rabbi and convicted by the Inquisition, but it is doubtful that he was, in fact, a Rabbi. The title "Rabbi" was commonly used by the Inquisition to qualify people who were more learned about Jewish Law than other Anusim.

Mexican Jews felt it was important to have their children marry other Jews. It was common for suitable grooms to be recruited from Jewish communities in Europe to marry young Mexican Jewish girls. Ideal partners would be devout and learned. The brides were very young, generally under fifteen years old, and although their husbands were chosen by their fathers, the girl’s approval was necessary if she was older than twelve. In the absence of a Rabbi, the marrying couple would sign a document in the presence of both families. A Catholic ceremony would follow.

Circumcision was commonly practiced among Mexican Jews, even though it made it easy for the Inquisition to identify them. There was a variation of circumcision that was probably taken from the Indians, in which the boy’s penis would be cut longitudinally. There is a theory that claims that circumcision may have created a bond between Jews and Indians. The operation was performed on boys between the ages of nine and thirteen, not on newborns. Some families adopted some other form of mark, such as a cut on the shoulder, as their symbol of the covenant.

Jewish dietary laws were also adapted to Mexican life. The refusal to eat pork was the most common accusation made by the Inquisition to "conversos." Most Anussim were almost vegetarian, avoiding red meat most of the time. Poultry had to be decapitated and cleaned of all blood. Women generally slaughtered the animals, getting rid of the blood during the night so neighbors and servants would not see it. Jews ate basically the same foods that Christians did: fish, vegetables, eggs and olives. Those foods are not meat or dairy, so they were particularly practical for people who kept a Kosher diet, where meat and dairy cannot be mixed.

Frequently Jews invited their Christian friends for meals, when they made stews which included pork. In that case, they would either drop the pieces of pork to the floor, or push them around the plate leaving them for last, when they would claim they were satisfied. Such practice actually violates Jewish Law, but it was used when Christians were around. It was also fairly common for Jews to serve bacon to their Christian guests, avoiding to eat or regurgitating it after the guests were gone. Children were told to only eat food prepared by members of their families. Jews also drank chocolate, a traditional native drink prepared without milk which could be drank with dairy or meat dishes. Some Jewish foods were incorporated into Mexican diet, such as the challa (pan trenzada), and the alfajor, a sweet made of almonds, walnuts and honey, which is usually eaten during the Jewish New Year.

Women were important members of the "converso" community. Many Jewish women were tortured and burned by the Inquisition. The simplified religion kept by Mexican Jews was not as hierarchical as traditional Judaism, so women had a more important role in keeping traditions and educating the children.

It was common for the Inquisition to accuse "conversos" of disrespecting Catholicism and mocking the Christian faith. Although most of these accusations were false, many Jews did resent Catholicism and sometimes criticized the Church in public. There are accounts of burnings of images of Jesus and saints and breaking of crucifixes. "Christ epitomized the cause of [the Jew’s] problems." (Liebman, 85) In 1536, Gonzalo Gómez was accused of placing a cross on the roof of a hut and hanging chili peppers on the arms of the cross. A Jewish repair shop put crosses on the soles of the shoes of his customers, "so they would be treading on a cross." (Liebman, New Spain, 84) Why would Crypto-Jews choose to insult inanimate objects they did not believe in the first place, risking getting in trouble with the Inquisition? Although secrecy was necessary for survival, Crypto-Jews sometimes revealed their true identity by revolting against their oppressor. Although they were not intentional martyrs, some people came to the conclusion it was worth it to be true to their Jewish identities, instead of leading a double life.

The hidden life of Crypto-Jews was not so easy to lead. It was risky, and when someone was caught by the Inquisition that person was tortured until he or she denounced all the people in the family who kept Jewish practices. Therefore, not every Jewish family passed down the secret of their identity to their children. Traditions and practices were still handed down, but as time went by and the Inquisition relaxed its persecution of Jews, people lost the motivation to remain hidden Jews. More and more people became assimilated, until all Crypto-Jews had disappeared from Mexico by the eighteenth century. Some traditions such as lighting candles on Friday nights were still kept, but families were not aware of their meaning. When religious freedom was established in Mexico, there were no families coming forward and identifying themselves as Jews. Later, many families were identified through traditions they had been keeping for generations, but they were not aware of their origins. Of these, only a small number returned to Judaism.

The Crypto-Jews were an important part of the Colonial Mexican population, because of their silent resistance, their dual existence and the culture that resulted from it, mixing Jewish, Christian and Indian customs. Although the Inquisition eliminated a good number of Jews, it has kept a detailed record of their lives. And even though persecution and assimilation interrupted the Jewish presence in Mexico, traces of their culture have remained and are identifying more and more people who are descendants from the Anussim.

CRYPTO-JEWS IN COLONIAL MEXICO

Performing Colonialism

Melissa Bromfman de Ferrante

ID 014-78-5789

December 21, 2000

BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Cruz, Anne J. and Perry, Mary Elizabeth. Cultural Encounters. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1991
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• Halevy, Shulamit. Anusim in North America Tradition, 1995
• Haring, C.H. The Spanish Empire in America. New York, Oxford University Press, 1947
• Lea, Henry Charles. The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies. New York, The McMillan Company, 1908
• Liebman, Seymour. The Enlightened. Coral Gables, University of Miami Press, 1967
• Liebman, Seymour. The Jews in New Spain. Coral Gables, University of Miami Press, 1970